Prime minister: chosen by and responsible to the parliament

France combines directly elected president with a prime minister

Prime minister selects other members of cabinet from Parliament

• Presidents are outsiders: Presidents, because they are elected in a popular fashion, are able to win by "distancing themselves from the mess in washington", where as prime ministers are always insiders
• Presidents choose cabinet members from outside congress: prime ministers choose from within parliament -- thus he has some control over parliament
• Presidents have no guaranteed majority in the legislature:

Presidents are generally perceived as more powerful internationally because PM must check with parliament.

Definition: one party controls house, one controls senate. As opposed to unified government.

American pundits claim average joe doesn't like divided government.

Scholars conclude divided and unified do about the same.

Main reason? Unified government is a bit of a myth.

Thus unified government really only exists when both bodies have same ideological wing.

In a typical election, about 25% of voters will vote for different party for each body

Gridlock is a necessary consequence of representative democracy

Gridlock is less important than relative power of congress and the president

We have more divided government as of late because

We have fewer people identifying with parties

Thus we have split-ticked votes

President may abuse power of pardon

Veto power means president is as powerful as 2/3 of congress

President might use state militias to overpower state governments

If president had to share treaty-making power with senate, he would become its tool

Presidents role in foreign affairs

Ability to shape public opinion

Position as head of executive branch

Claim of "inherent powers"

President can:

• Serve as commander in chief of the armed forces
• Commission officers of the armed forces
• Grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses
• Convene congress in special sessions
• Receive ambassadors
• Take care that the laws be faithfully executed
• Wield the "Executive power"
• Appoint officials to the lesser offices
• Make treaties (With senate confirmation
• Appoint ambassadors, judges, and high officials (with senate approval)

Presidents have used "faithfully executed" to do a great deal: Cleveland breaking labor strikes, Eisenhower and federal troops/ forced integration in little rock

Greatest source of power: public opinion

Power is wielded by those who are close

West wing assistants: hired and fired by president at will (no confirmation) -- essentially workers. Currently about 500

Presidents frequently mix methods

Executive offices of the president:

Report directly to the president but are not located in the White House itself

Appointments must be confirmed by senate

• Office of Management and Budget
• Centeral Intelligence Agency
• Council of Economic Advisors
• Offices of Personnel Management
• Office of the US trade representative

OMB is most important

Heads of federal departments.

Approved by senate; president has limited power over them.

He can't really control who they employ

Members are heads of vast organizations that they seek to control

Departments: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans affairs

A president is fortunate if most cabinet members agree with him on policy

People usually have prior federal experience

Many are "in-and-outers" -- alternate between federal service and private

Presidents as of late have been placing people known for their expertise -- look at number of Ph. D.'s

Audience: persons that need to be persuaded or supported

Washington DC audience of fellow politicians and leaders

Party office holders and activists outside Washington

The Public -- everybody else

The object is to convert personal popularity into legislative support for proposals

President's popularity doesn't really help congressmen that much

Politicians tend to rise and fall together

Factors in popularity

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Veto message: president sends message to congress within 10 days of the bill passing saying he isn't going to sign it. He must give reasons for the veto. It goes back to the chamber where it originated.

Can be overridden by a 2/3 majority of a quorum.

Only really 34 senators.

Main reason: one more thing to slow the legislative notion – every law is inherently an infringement on liberty

Pocket veto: president doesn't sign it within 10 days and congress has ajourned in that time; bill doesn't become law.

If bill is not signed within 10 days, it becomes law automatically

Veto power is substantial because congress rarely has the votes to override it.

President might veto on personal, political, constitutional grounds

Based upon: separation of powers; need for candid information

President refuses to spend money allocated by congress

President relies on _____ when making a program

Constraints on the president

Fundamental change does not occur in large republics

Crisis

Reorganization as a tool for change

Can help for minor agenda item

Often more symbolic

The Vice President

Position is only important when the president dies; resigns

VP’s only action is to vote in case of a tie; only gives bill an additional chance to pass

VP has become more important over time

The vice president can, on his or her own whim, become acting president, as long as president doesn’t disagree. If the president does disagree, then cabinet takes a vote. If president takes issue with the cabinet’s vote, then it goes to congress.